Mobile Crisis Teams

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines describe mobile crisis teams as services designed to “rapidly meet the needs of individuals, provide support, ensure safety, and coordinate follow-up care” in lieu of law enforcement response. American Police Beat Magazine, KVUE, and other sources describe programs matching this definition across more than 130 cities. ↩

The Badger (University of Wisconsin-Madison), Peter Cameron, quoting Sarah Henrickson, co-founder of Madison’s CARES program. ↩

Harris County Commissioner Rodney Ellis, as reported by Houston Public Media. The scenario is drawn from HART program descriptions of an actual response. ↩

Harris County HART program description: “based in the county’s public health department and composed of healthcare experts, crisis intervention specialists, and case managers.” Houston Landing, McKenna Oxenden; Houston Public Media. ↩

Harris County Commissioner Rodney Ellis: “By addressing the underlying mental health and substance use needs that led to the 911 call in the first place, HART can resolve the immediate situation, get the person the help they need to stabilize their life, and make it much less likely the person requires an emergency response in the future.” ↩

Interview with Megan McGee, Police Special Projects Manager, St. Petersburg Police Department: “CALL never closes a client. They do as much follow-up as needed so that the client can get engaged with long term services.” ↩

KVUE, Marisa Masumoto: “The mental health experts with EMCOT typically stay on scene for about an hour, then follow up within 24 hours—and can continue helping for up to 90 days with transitional crisis services.” ↩

Rhino Times: Guilford County specialized team “reduced this group’s non-emergency calls to 911 over a 30-day period from 344 to four.” ↩

Wayne County/Detroit program description, Detroit News, Kara Berg: “Each team has a masters-level clinical social worker and a peer recovery coach with lived experience.” ↩

The Assembly NC, Jeffrey Billman, quoting Durham HEART program leaders: “Smith added peer-support specialists to community response teams… The specialists include people in recovery or who have lived unhoused in Durham and understand social service systems that often seem opaque and inaccessible. That’s been essential to building trust.” ↩

Portland crisis program client feedback, reported in Fox12 News coverage (Leslie Dominique) of Portland Street Response. ↩

KOSU, Sierra Pfeifer: Oklahoma City’s “Mobile Integrated Healthcare Program… housed in the Oklahoma City Fire Department and composed of trained social workers, peer support specialists and paramedics.” ↩

Multiple program descriptions including Oklahoma City’s “Community Advocacy Program” (KOSU) and Durham HEART follow-up protocols (IndyWeek, Lena Geller). ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR describes teams arriving without weapons or uniforms. IndyWeek (Lena Geller) describes Durham HEART as “unarmed first responders.” Multiple program descriptions confirm plain-clothes, unmarked-vehicle protocols. ↩

KOMO News, Joel Moreno, quoting Seattle CARE team member: “Both police and fire are usually on a time crunch… [CARE was] specially designed to be able to stay on the scene as long as needed.” ↩

KVUE, Marisa Masumoto, describing Austin EMCOT operations. ↩

Durham Community Safety Director Ryan Smith, quoted in The Assembly NC, Jeffrey Billman, and in WRAL coverage of Durham’s Community Safety Department. ↩

The Crime Report, Joseph Kolb: “Albuquerque Community Safety Department (ACS) is a city cabinet-level agency [and] the first in the nation.” Albuquerque Police Chief Harold Medina quoted in KRQE. ↩

Harris County Commissioner Rodney Ellis, as reported by Houston Public Media. ↩

NYU’s Barry Friedman quoted in New York Times: “now more than 130 alternative response programs operating across the country.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine: “14 of the 20 most populous cities in the United States are in the process of implementing or exploring programs… with combined annual budgets exceeding $123 million as of June 2023.” ↩

Minneapolis program report: “not a single unarmed responder has been seriously injured.” ↩

CBS News San Diego, Richard Allyn: “over 98% of calls have been diverted from armed law enforcement, resulting in a trained MCRT team arriving instead.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine: “police have never been called for backup during STAR interventions.” ↩

Seattle Times, Taylor Blatchford, describing King County crisis stabilization centers with multiple service levels including guaranteed acceptance for first responder drop-offs. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines: “23 percent lower average cost… reduced inpatient hospitalization costs by approximately 79 percent.” ↩

CBS News interview with Dr. Jonathan Porteus, president of Ri International: “Before 988, 911 was the only option in a mental health crisis… [which would lead to] a hospital, or [] to jail.” ↩

Sacramento Bee, Rosalio Ahumada, quoting Sacramento County Sheriff Jim Cooper. ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR, quoting a Denver police officer. ↩

ICMA 2025 Community Health & Safety Award: Durham HEART 10,000+ officer hours saved. Earlier figure of 5,500 hours reported by Harvard Public Health Magazine, Ryan Levi. ↩

The Oklahoman, Josh Kelly: “57% Decline In Police Dispatched To Mental Health Calls.” ↩

Minneapolis Deputy Chief Eric Fors, quoted in Minneapolis program coverage: “Feedback from the rank-and-file officers has been nothing but positive.” ↩

Interview with Megan McGee, Police Special Projects Manager, St. Petersburg Police Department: “No one came to me and fought the program. This was a big win for the officers.” ↩

St. Petersburg police officer, quoted in interview reported by Megan McGee. ↩

Rhino Times: Guilford County specialized team “reduced this group’s non-emergency calls to 911 over a 30-day period from 344 to four.” ↩

Wall Street Journal analysis of court records (2015–2024): “local governments representing 25 of the nation’s largest police and sheriff’s departments paid out over three billion dollars over a ten year period to settle civil lawsuit claims.” ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines: “23 percent lower average cost… reduced inpatient hospitalization costs by approximately 79 percent.” ↩

9News Denver, Kelly Reinke: “estimates that if people were placed in the criminal justice system instead, it would have cost the city four-times more.” ↩

Rhino Times: Guilford County savings from targeted crisis intervention. ↩

Austin Police Association President Michael Bullock, testimony before Austin City Council, quoted in multiple sources including KVUE. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines: “law enforcement presence should be minimized to the degree possible, recognizing the potential harm and stigma associated with police involvement in behavioral health crises.” ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines: “communities across the country have designed their mobile crisis services to rapidly meet the needs of individuals, provide support, ensure safety, and coordinate follow-up care.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine dispatch data analysis of 15 U.S. police departments: “up to 20%” of police dispatch time spent on behavioral health calls. ↩

Dakota County, Minnesota program administrator Brent Anderson, quoted in program coverage: “83% of calls don’t need to have law enforcement.” ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR: “only had the capacity to respond to 20% of the city’s nearly 40,000 eligible calls.” ↩

U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, investigation of Phoenix Police Department: “PhxPD officers often approach individuals with behavioral health disabilities with a ‘force first’ mentality” and “fire Tasers at people with little or no warning.” ↩

U.S. Department of Justice, Phoenix investigation: officers “fail to recognize that a person’s disability may impact whether they can understand commands or comply with them.” ↩

U.S. Department of Justice, Phoenix investigation: “when we did see PhxPD request a mobile crisis team, the incidents were resolved without arrest or use of force.” ↩

The Press Democrat, Madison Smalstig: Santa Rosa InResponse program diverted “3,568 calls from law enforcement” and “1,408 from fire and emergency medical services.” Santa Rosa Police Lieutenant Chris Mahurin quoted. ↩

Oklahoma City Police Chief Ron Bacy, News 9: mental health professionals are the “more appropriate” responders, “allowing us to not be the subject matter experts in certain situations that don’t require our physical presence… Having people who are specifically trained to address people in crisis produces a better outcome at times.” ↩

Wayne State University 2025 study of crisis response models in five Michigan communities: “The co-response model showed limited success in meeting diversion, service linkage, and follow-up goals” and “had similar arrest proportions to law enforcement only responses.” ↩

Wayne State University 2025 study: co-response “had higher proportions of hospitalization and lower proportions of informal crisis resolution.” ↩

Wayne State University 2025 study: mobile crisis teams produced “a statistically significant reduction in arrests” and showed “high proportions of diverting users from criminal legal and medical systems.” ↩

Wayne State University 2025 study: mobile teams resolved crises “either informally or without hospitalization” and provided “more transport to home, family, and friends.” ↩

Interview with Megan McGee, Police Special Projects Manager, St. Petersburg Police Department: “The chief wasn’t sold on co-response [where an armed officer and a civilian handle calls together], because he said there are enough calls that are non-violent and non-criminal that we can completely divert these.” ↩

Register-Guard, Tatiana Parafiniuk-Talesnick: “After 33 years, Eugene moves CAHOOTS from police to fire department.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine and NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR’s origins and civilian-only model. ↩

Fox12 News, Leslie Dominique: Portland City Council passed a resolution “formally establishing” Portland Street Response “as an equal branch of the city’s public safety system” with staff receiving “the full designation as first responders, with all the associated employment benefits.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine, quoting Police Chief Robert Spinks, Parsons, Kansas. ↩

American Police Beat Magazine, Chief Spinks: “not all officers are cut out to be or are interested in taking on Crisis Intervention Training.” CIT staffing fractions documented in multiple law enforcement contexts. ↩

Seattle Times, Taylor Blatchford, describing King County crisis stabilization centers with multiple service levels and “guaranteed acceptance” for first responder drop-offs. ↩

CBS News interview with Dr. Jonathan Porteus, president of Ri International: “Before 988, 911 was the only option in a mental health crisis… [which would lead to] a hospital, or [] to jail.” ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines: “law enforcement presence should be minimized to the degree possible, recognizing the potential harm and stigma associated with police involvement in behavioral health crises.” ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines: “law enforcement presence should be minimized to the degree possible” and “communities across the country have designed their mobile crisis services to rapidly meet the needs of individuals, provide support, ensure safety, and coordinate follow-up care.” ↩

SAMHSA 2025 data: “a 23 percent lower average cost per case compared to regular law enforcement intervention” and “reduced inpatient hospitalization costs by approximately 79 percent in follow-up periods after crisis episodes.” ↩

9News Denver, Kelly Reinke: “estimates that if people were placed in the criminal justice system instead, it would have cost the city four-times more.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine: “a Stanford University study found that in areas where STAR operated, reports of petty crimes dropped by a third while violent crime rates remained steady.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine: “police have never been called for backup during STAR interventions.” ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR, quoting a Denver police officer: “Very quickly we’re all like, ‘No, why would we fight this? Why would we argue?’ Because this is the right model. It’s what always should have been happening. It’s what we wanted.” ↩

Minneapolis program report: “not a single unarmed responder has been seriously injured.” ↩

WRAL, Sarah Krueger and Lora Lavigne: “HEART’s responders have never needed police backup for safety.” Call count updated to 32,000+ per ICMA 2025 Award. ↩

CBS News San Diego, Richard Allyn: “over 98% of calls have been diverted from armed law enforcement, resulting in a trained MCRT team arriving instead.” ↩

WGN News, Dana Rebik and BJ Lutz: Chicago’s FACT program “resolved 94 percent of calls without law enforcement.” ↩

Wayne State University 2025 study: mobile response teams “divert service users from criminal-legal systems, reduce emergency room use, and improve linkages to community-based services and provide follow-up, often without law enforcement involvement.” ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines define eligible call types. Multiple program descriptions confirm scope. ↩

Multiple program descriptions across Denver STAR (NYU Policing Project), Oklahoma City (KOSU), Durham HEART (IndyWeek), San Diego County (San Diego Union-Tribune). ↩

KOSU, Sierra Pfeifer: Oklahoma City Alternative Response Team includes “a certified peer support recovery specialist” and “tackles overdose response, providing treatment, support and follow-ups to people struggling with substance use.” ↩

Multiple program descriptions including Oklahoma City (KOSU) and Austin EMCOT (KVUE) describing Narcan and treatment connections. ↩

Bozeman Daily Chronicle, quoting Ryan Mattson, mobile crisis team lead, Bozeman, Montana. ↩

San Diego Union-Tribune, Tammy Murga and Lauren Mapp: teams handle “mothers experiencing postpartum depression,” “parents whose children have physically assaulted them,” and “combative loved ones with dementia.” ↩

Harris County Commissioner Rodney Ellis, as reported by Houston Public Media. Scenario from HART program descriptions. ↩

Spectrum News, Kennedy Chase: Ohio Mobile Response and Stabilization Services “serves anyone under 20.” ↩

Ohio program materials describing youth crisis responses. ↩

San Diego Union-Tribune: “parents whose children have physically assaulted them” and “mothers experiencing postpartum depression.” ↩

Inside Higher Ed: UC-Davis crisis team “receives between five to six calls per day.” ↩

CSU Long Beach program director, quoted in campus program coverage. ↩

Times of San Diego, Serena Neumeyer: “faculty members in more than 700 schools have received instructions on how to contact the MCRT dispatch center.” ↩

Rhino Times: Guilford County specialized team “reduced this group’s non-emergency calls to 911 over a 30-day period from 344 to four.” ↩

Multiple program descriptions and SAMHSA 2025 guidelines define scope boundaries at weapons and active violence. ↩

CBS News San Diego, Richard Allyn: “over 98% of calls have been diverted from armed law enforcement.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine: “police have never been called for backup during STAR interventions.” ↩

Minneapolis program report; KSTP: “not a single unarmed responder has been seriously injured.” ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR program expansion from pilot to citywide. ↩

San Diego Union-Tribune: “extending their reach to college campuses, a tribal community and, soon, grade schools, and Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton.” ↩

The Oklahoman, Josh Kelly: “57% Decline In Police Dispatched To Mental Health Calls.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine dispatch data analysis of 15 U.S. police departments. ↩

NYU Policing Project Report: Denver STAR covers 44% of eligible calls. ↩

KVUE, Marisa Masumoto: Austin “needs three times the number of members it currently has to fully match the volume.” ↩

Stanford University, Thomas Dee and Jaymes Pyne, Science Advances, 2022. ↩

NBER, Bocar A. Ba, Patton Chen, Tony Cheng, et al., Working Paper No. 34344, 2025. ↩

Wayne State University, Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice, 2025. ↩

BMC Health Services Research, review of mobile crisis unit studies. ↩

Minneapolis program data; KSTP. ↩

St. Petersburg CALL program data; Megan McGee interview. ↩

CBS News San Diego. ↩

WGN News, Dana Rebik and BJ Lutz. ↩

American Police Beat Magazine, Denver STAR. ↩

Durham Community Safety Department data. ↩

Marshall Project, Christie Thompson, “Sending Unarmed Responders Instead of Police: What We’ve Learned,” July 25, 2024. ↩

ICMA 2025 Award; Durham Community Safety Department. ↩

The Oklahoman, Oklahoma City. ↩

WDSU, Arielle Brumfeld: New Orleans crisis unit; NOPD report: “36% burden reduction on NOPD platoon personnel.” ↩

WHYY, Nicole Leonard: “Philly Mobile Crisis Response Teams Average 20 Mental Health Emergencies A Day.” ↩

Albuquerque police commander, quoted in The New Yorker and KRQE coverage of ACS program. ↩

Minneapolis Deputy Chief Eric Fors and program manager Candace Hanson. ↩

L.A. City Administrator’s Office report. ↩

The Press Democrat, Madison Smalstig; Santa Rosa Police Lt. Chris Mahurin. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines. ↩

9News Denver, Denver STAR cost analysis. ↩

Rhino Times, Guilford County. ↩

The Badger, Peter Cameron: Madison CARES team; Sarah Henrickson, co-founder. ↩

Wall Street Journal analysis of court records (2015–2024). ↩

Law Enforcement Action Partnership report. ↩

U.S. DOJ, Civil Rights Division, Phoenix Police Department investigation. ↩

Megan McGee, St. Petersburg CALL program. ↩

KVUE, Marisa Masumoto, Austin EMCOT. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines. ↩

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Austin EMCOT. ↩

Kaiser Family Foundation; HHS 85% match rate. ↩

Portland Street Response client interviews; Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community. ↩

Whatcom News, Whatcom County Alternative Response Team. ↩

NYU Policing Project, San Francisco Street Crisis Response Team evaluation. ↩

Evidence gaps noted in NBER evaluation methodology discussion and NYU Policing Project Report limitations sections. ↩

Kaiser Family Foundation; HHS 85% match rate timeline. ↩

Oklahoma City Police Chief Ron Bacy; News 9. ↩

NAMI/Ipsos 2025 national poll: 85% of Americans believe people in a mental health crisis “should receive a mental health response” rather than a police response. ↩

Michigan Public Radio, Rachel Mintz: “about eight out of every 10 Michigan county sheriffs and local police chiefs support having some type of specialized emergency response that would include professionals in fields like mental health and social work for some 911 calls.” ↩

Harris County poll by Gydence Research: 78% say program is effective; 88% after learning more; 84% Democrats and 83% Republicans. ↩

KVUE: Austin “expects to save about $12 million every year” with “thousands of dollars saved for each diverted call.” ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines: youth-oriented “mobile crisis programs have been linked to decreases in school arrests, improved school attendance, and a decline in police calls.” ↩

WKBN, Delaney Ruth: Ohio youth mobile crisis program provides “follow up support for six weeks after the initial call for service, helping to ensure that the young person remains stable and successfully returns to their normal routine.” ↩

Albuquerque Community Safety Department program data; Albuquerque police commander quote (100,000+ calls). Earlier figure of 45,000 reported in The New Yorker (Oztaskin, February 2023). ↩

2024 national survey of mobile crisis service providers. ↩

Associated Press; American Police Beat Magazine (June 2023). ↩

NYU’s Barry Friedman; New York Times. ↩

Multiple program descriptions and news reports. ↩

Milwaukee Mobile Crisis program data. ↩

Commissioner Ellis December 2025 newsletter; Gydence Research poll. ↩

Spectrum News, Kennedy Chase; Ohio Governor DeWine. ↩

KSTP, Kirsten Swanson; Minnesota state law. ↩

South Jersey Local News; New Jersey 988 program. ↩

Indianapolis Recorder, Chloe McGowan. ↩

Orange County Register; Daily Californian; Inside Higher Ed; Oregon State; Seattle Times. ↩

Inside Higher Ed, UC-Davis. ↩

CSU Long Beach program director. ↩

Times of San Diego, Serena Neumeyer. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines. ↩

San Diego Union-Tribune. ↩

Brent Anderson, operations director, Dakota 911. ↩

Kaiser Health News, Tony Leys and Arielle Zionts. ↩

Professor Amy Watson, University of Illinois. ↩

Police Chief Robert Spinks; American Police Beat Magazine. ↩

Helena Police Chief Brett Petty; Helena Independent Record. ↩

Fairbanks Deputy Police Chief Rick Sweets; PBS affiliate. ↩

Stanford University, Thomas Dee and Jaymes Pyne, Science Advances, 2022. ↩

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Austin EMCOT. ↩

WHYY, Nicole Leonard: Philadelphia mobile crisis response teams. ↩

Minneapolis program data; KSTP. ↩

Portland Street Response program data. ↩

NBER, Bocar A. Ba, Patton Chen, Tony Cheng, et al., Working Paper No. 34344, 2025; ICMA 2025 Award. ↩

Tulsa Alternative Response Team program description. ↩

Madison CARES team program data. ↩

St. Petersburg CALL program data; Megan McGee interview. ↩

Rhino Times, Guilford County. ↩

ARLNow, Arlington County MOST team. ↩

Virginia Governor Youngkin “Right Help, Right Now.” ↩

The Oklahoman, Oklahoma City. ↩

Michigan Public Radio, Rachel Mintz. ↩

Eugene fire chief; external evaluation of CAHOOTS. ↩

NYU Report on Denver STAR program. ↩

Psychiatric Services, 2026; behavioral health workforce and crisis response expansion. ↩

NPR investigation, February 2026; Montana program defunding. ↩

Juneau Empire, Mark Sabbatini; Juneau Police Chief Derek Bos. ↩

Sebring, Florida program description. ↩

L.A. City Administrator’s Office report. ↩

WGN News, Dana Rebik and BJ Lutz, Chicago FACT. ↩

The Press Democrat, Madison Smalstig; Santa Rosa. ↩

Whatcom News, Whatcom County Alternative Response Team. ↩

Kaiser Family Foundation: 21 states opted in to Medicaid reimbursement for mobile crisis services as of September 2024. ↩

Senator Ron Wyden: “Oregon is the 1st state approved for Medicaid reimbursement.” ↩

HHS announcement on 85% federal match rate for three years. ↩

Denver STAR program data on Medicaid billability. ↩

Albuquerque Community Safety Department program data (100,000+ calls). Earlier figure of 45,000 reported in The New Yorker (Oztaskin, February 2023). ↩

Albuquerque Police Chief Harold Medina, quoted in KRQE. ↩

Durham and New Orleans community safety department descriptions from The Assembly NC and WDSU. ↩

Seattle Times, Taylor Blatchford: Mayor Bruce Harrell announced “$26 million to establish the ‘Community Assisted Response and Engagement department.'” ↩

The Assembly NC, Jeffrey Billman: Durham Community Safety Director Ryan Smith describing HEART program structure. ↩

Safer Cities national poll of 2,503 registered voters, 2024: 80% say mobile crisis response units are “effective”; 89% Democrats, 72% Republicans. ↩

Safer Cities national poll, 2024: 58% prefer investing in mobile crisis units over hiring more police officers (34% prefer more police). ↩

Harris County poll by Gydence Research: 84% Democrats, 83% Republicans. ↩

Virginia Governor Youngkin “Right Help, Right Now” plan; 30+ new mobile crisis teams. ↩

Virginia voter survey on Youngkin plan: support increased upon learning details. ↩

Safer Cities national poll, 2022: post-opposition-message support levels. ↩

NAMI/Ipsos 2025 national poll: 85% of Americans believe crisis situations should receive “a mental health response” rather than “a police response.” 73-point margin. ↩

Harris County poll by Gydence Research: 78% say program is effective. ↩

Harris County poll: post-exposure support rises to 88%. ↩

Chicago likely voter poll: 74% support reassigning certain police duties. ↩

Michigan Public Radio, Rachel Mintz: “about eight out of every 10 Michigan county sheriffs and local police chiefs support having some type of specialized emergency response.” ↩

Sacramento Bee, Rosalio Ahumada, quoting Sacramento County Sheriff Jim Cooper. ↩

Albuquerque Police Chief Harold Medina, KRQE. ↩

Helena Police Chief Brett Petty, Helena Independent Record. ↩

Austin Police Association President Michael Bullock, KVUE; Austin City Council testimony. ↩

Notes on Persuasion newsletter: RCT and max-diff message testing studies. ↩

Safer Cities national poll, 2024: 86% agreement with expertise argument; 88% Democrats, 79% Republicans. ↩

Safer Cities national poll, 2024: 82% agreement with police-focus argument; 87% Democrats, 79% Republicans. ↩

Safer Cities national poll, 2024: 78% agreement with escalation argument; 75% Republicans. ↩

U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Phoenix Police Department investigation. ↩

U.S. DOJ, Phoenix: “when we did see PhxPD request a mobile crisis team, the incidents were resolved without arrest or use of force.” ↩

Law Enforcement Action Partnership report: liability costs over ten years. ↩

Minneapolis Deputy Chief Eric Fors and program manager Candace Hanson, quoted in Minneapolis program coverage. ↩

Interview with Megan McGee, Police Special Projects Manager, St. Petersburg Police Department. ↩

Sacramento Bee, Rosalio Ahumada, quoting Sacramento County Sheriff Jim Cooper. ↩

Albuquerque Police Chief Harold Medina, quoted in KRQE. ↩

Helena Police Chief Brett Petty, Helena Independent Record. ↩

Austin Police Association President Michael Bullock, testimony before Austin City Council, quoted in KVUE. ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR, quoting Denver 911 dispatchers. ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR: dispatchers “forget to utilize this new ‘fourth option.'” ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR, quoting STAR crisis responders. ↩

Megan McGee, St. Petersburg CALL program: “The child is now employed part-time, attending school, getting excellent grades.” ↩

Abena Bediako, Durham HEART social worker, quoted in WRAL coverage. ↩

Durham HEART Director Ryan Smith, quoted in The Assembly NC, Jeffrey Billman. ↩

Kaiser Health News, Tony Leys and Arielle Zionts, quoting Jeff White in rural Iowa. ↩

KLCC, quoting Rebecca Hill on CAHOOTS; CAHOOTS shutdown April 2025 documented in multiple Oregon sources. ↩

Portland Street Response client study, Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community; Fox12 News coverage. ↩

NBER, Bocar A. Ba, Patton Chen, Tony Cheng, et al., Working Paper No. 34344, 2025: Durham HEART program costs $1,191 per response, generates $2,093 in fiscal savings. ↩

Tim Davis, president of Sacramento Police Officers Association. ↩

CBS News Sacramento, September 2020: Tom Saggau, spokesman for police unions in Los Angeles and San Francisco. ↩

Houston Landing, McKenna Oxenden: Harris County HART transition to in-house employees. ↩

Fox12 News; Portland City Council resolution July 2025 designating crisis responders as first responders. ↩

NYU Policing Project Report: Denver STAR “only had the capacity to respond to 20% of the city’s nearly 40,000 eligible calls.” Expanded to cover 44%. ↩

KVUE, Marisa Masumoto: Austin “needs three times the number of members it currently has to fully match the volume.” ↩

American Police Beat Magazine dispatch data analysis of 15 U.S. police departments. ↩

Professor Amy Watson, University of Illinois, Council of State Governments presentation: “just about half the population of the U.S. lives in behavioral health workforce shortage areas.” ↩

Houston Landing, McKenna Oxenden: Harris County decision to bring HART program in-house with county employees. ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR, quoting Denver 911 dispatchers on liability concerns and habit-based routing. ↩

Multiple Oregon sources on CAHOOTS shutdown April 2025; White Bird Clinic leadership statements. ↩

NPR investigation, February 2026: 2024 survey found 1,800+ mobile crisis teams but “financial support for them is often inadequate and inconsistent.” ↩

Minneapolis program report: “not a single unarmed responder has been seriously injured.” American Police Beat Magazine: Denver police “have never been called for backup during STAR interventions.” Multiple program safety reports. ↩

NBER, Bocar A. Ba, Patton Chen, Tony Cheng, et al., Working Paper No. 34344, 2025: Durham HEART $902 net savings per call. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines: “23 percent lower average cost” and “reduced inpatient hospitalization costs by approximately 79 percent.” ↩

Kaiser Family Foundation; HHS 85% match rate for three years. ↩

Wayne State University 2025 study: mobile-only teams outperformed co-response on arrest, hospitalization, and service linkage outcomes. ↩

NYC Comptroller’s 2024 audit of B-HEARD program. ↩

Tim Davis, president of Sacramento Police Officers Association. ↩

CBS News Sacramento, September 2020: Tom Saggau, spokesman for police unions in Los Angeles and San Francisco, on police reform legislation. ↩

Portland City Commissioner Rene Gonzalez; Portland Street Response hiring freeze; multiple Oregon news sources. ↩

Georgetown Law Professor Christy Lopez, Innovative Policing Program. ↩

Congressional Research Service, 2023 review of alternative response programs. ↩

Correct Crisis Intervention Today coalition, New York City. ↩

Stanford University, Thomas Dee and Jaymes Pyne, Science Advances, 2022. ↩

Houston Landing; Harris County HART program description. ↩

KOSU, Sierra Pfeifer: Oklahoma City program “housed in the Oklahoma City Fire Department.” ↩

Seattle Times, Taylor Blatchford. ↩

Houston Landing, McKenna Oxenden: Harris County HART transition to in-house employees. ↩

Multiple Oregon sources on CAHOOTS shutdown April 2025. ↩

Rhino Times: Guilford County. ↩

The Oklahoman, Josh Kelly. ↩

Fox12 News; Portland City Council resolution July 2025. ↩

South Carolina Department of Mental Health salary increase. ↩

Gydence Research poll of Harris County residents, 2024. ↩

Olympia Crisis Response Unit (CRU) program data, 2023. ↩

Megan McGee interview, St. Petersburg CALL program data. ↩

The New Yorker; Albuquerque Community Safety program data. ↩

ICMA 2025 Award; Durham Community Safety Department data; The Assembly NC. ↩

SAMHSA behavioral health workforce shortage data; HRSA designated shortage areas. ↩

National Research Institute (NRI) 2024 survey of mobile crisis workforce. ↩

Wayne State University, Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice, 2025. ↩

Marshall Project, 2024: survey of community responder safety experts. ↩

SAMHSA peer support Medicaid reimbursement tracking. ↩

KVUE, Marisa Masumoto: Austin EMCOT dispatch integration; 24 of 71 employees in dispatch. ↩

Robert Blaine, National League of Cities, program design observations. ↩

IndyWeek, Lena Geller: Durham HEART peer specialists. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 guidelines and multiple program descriptions define scope boundaries. ↩

Center for American Progress, Law Enforcement Action Partnership, and NYU Policing Project, 2023 dispatch analysis report. ↩

NYU Policing Project Report on Denver STAR: program capacity and call type expansion. ↩

San Diego Union-Tribune, Tammy Murga and Lauren Mapp. ↩

Daut’e Martin, Law Enforcement Action Partnership. ↩

NYU Policing Project, dispatch integration studies across Denver, San Francisco, Tucson, Chicago, and Minneapolis. ↩

Andrew Dameron, Director of Emergency Communications and 911, Denver. ↩

National Research Institute 2024 survey: 70% report 24/7 availability, 40% meet minimum staffing threshold. ↩

KVUE, Marisa Masumoto: Austin EMCOT 90 days transitional crisis services. ↩

Washington State mobile crisis response program guide: two-person minimum regulatory requirement. ↩

American Police Beat Magazine: “police have never been called for backup during STAR interventions.” ↩

CBS News San Diego (98%); WGN News, Chicago FACT (94%). ↩

ICMA 2025 Award: Durham HEART 10,000+ officer hours saved. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines: 79% hospitalization cost reduction. ↩

Minneapolis program report; KSTP: “not a single unarmed responder has been seriously injured.” ↩

Commissioner Lesley Briones: Harris County 228% increase in service linkages after in-house transition. ↩

Kaiser Family Foundation; Johns Hopkins Milbank Quarterly analysis (Anderson and Jorem, April 2025). ↩

NBER, Bocar A. Ba, Patton Chen, Tony Cheng, et al., Working Paper No. 34344, 2025. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines. ↩

9News Denver, Kelly Reinke. ↩

Rhino Times: Guilford County. ↩

NBER, Bocar A. Ba, Patton Chen, Tony Cheng, et al., Working Paper No. 34344, 2025. ↩

SAMHSA 2025 National Behavioral Health Crisis Care Guidelines. ↩

The Badger, Peter Cameron: Madison CARES team program data. ↩

Spectrum News, Kennedy Chase: Ohio Governor DeWine. ↩

Ohio program description. ↩

Senator Ron Wyden announcement; Kaiser Family Foundation. ↩

Kaiser Family Foundation tracking analysis. ↩

Johns Hopkins, Andrew Anderson and Jillian Jorem, Milbank Quarterly, April 2025. ↩

Johns Hopkins Milbank Quarterly analysis. ↩

NPR investigation, February 2026; Montana program documentation. ↩

NPR investigation, February 2026. ↩

The Center Square, Morgan Sweeney. ↩

Notes on Persuasion newsletter: RCT and max-diff message testing studies on mobile crisis response framing. ↩

Gydence Research poll of Harris County residents, 2024: 78% (public employees), 75% (higher-quality recruits), 74% (political durability). ↩

Notes on Persuasion newsletter: RCT and max-diff message testing studies on mobile crisis response framing. ↩

KVUE; Austin City Council testimony. ↩

Sacramento Bee, Rosalio Ahumada; KCRA. Sheriff Jim Cooper news conference, February 2025. ↩

KRQE; Albuquerque Police Chief Harold Medina. ↩

National survey of 2,503 registered voters, 2024: bipartisan breakdown. ↩

NAMI/Ipsos 2025 national poll. ↩

ICMA 2025 Community Health & Safety Award: Durham HEART 10,000+ officer hours saved. ↩

The Oklahoman, Josh Kelly. ↩

The New Yorker; Albuquerque Community Safety program data. ↩

NBER, Bocar A. Ba, Patton Chen, Tony Cheng, et al., Working Paper No. 34344, 2025. ↩

Michigan Public Radio, Rachel Mintz. ↩

Harris County Commissioner Rodney Ellis, Houston Public Media. ↩

Harris County Judge Lina Hidalgo, Houston Public Media. ↩

Carleigh Sailon, former STAR Program Manager, Denver; program coverage. ↩

Los Angeles Mayor Karen Bass; L.A. City Administrator’s Office report. ↩

Baton Rouge Police Chief Murphy Paul; program launch coverage. ↩

Philadelphia Police Officer Kenneth Harper; WHYY coverage. ↩

Columbus City Council President Shannon Hardin; Columbus Dispatch. ↩

The Badger, Peter Cameron, quoting Sarah Henrickson, co-founder, CARES mobile crisis team, Madison, Wisconsin. ↩

Stanford University, Science Advances, 2022; NBER Working Paper No. 34344, 2025; Wayne State University, Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice, 2025; BMC Health Services Research. ↩