Where Is This Happening?

Not many places yet. While more than 1,800 civilian crisis teams operate across the United States¹ and at least 14 of the 20 most populous cities host or are launching civilian crisis response programs,²⁹ the number of cities that have built a unified Community Safety Department, with its own director, budget, training infrastructure, and cabinet-level standing, can be counted on one hand. Several more are in development. National polling shows 82% public support,² but roughly five cities have built one.

The Established Departments

These cities have built functioning CSDs with dedicated leadership, budgets, and multi-program scope. They are the reference implementations for the model.

Albuquerque, New Mexico. The nation’s first standalone Community Safety Department, launched in 2021 under Mayor Tim Keller.³ ACS is a cabinet-level agency co-equal with police and fire, now directed by Jodie Esquibel (founding director Mariela Ruiz-Angel was promoted to Associate Chief Administrative Officer).⁴ The department has responded to more than 120,000 calls with 140 staff.⁵ It operates multiple divisions: civilian crisis response, violence intervention, and street outreach for homelessness. Call types are the broadest of any CSD: “down-and-outs” (intoxicated or incapacitated individuals), abandoned vehicles, non-injury accidents, needle pickups, welfare checks, mental health crises, and substance use emergencies.³ The department runs a training academy now partnered with Central New Mexico Community College,⁶ operates 24/7 since September 2023, and occupies a 10,800-square-foot headquarters deliberately located in an area with high concentration of addiction and behavioral health issues.⁷ Mayor Keller described the headquarters as a “massive symbol that we are never going to give up on anywhere in our city.”⁷ Police Commander Luke Languit credits the department with enabling crime reduction.⁸ Then-Police Chief Harold Medina called it a department that “is already helping to free up our officers.”⁹ Albuquerque launched its CSD in 2021, before any other city. It also illustrates the scale gap: even with 140 staff, it handles only about 3% of the city’s million-plus annual 911 calls.¹⁰ Before achieving 24/7 operations, the overnight gap had fatal consequences: The New Yorker documented that during hours when the CSD was closed, police responded to the kind of call that ACS would normally handle and shot and killed 27-year-old Keshawn Thomas.¹⁰

Durham, North Carolina. Durham’s Community Safety Department originally operated four functional areas: field response for non-violent behavioral health calls, a unit for calls involving weapons or threats, a dispatch division resolving calls by phone from inside the 911 center, and follow-up case management (reorganized into two direct-service divisions in July 2025).¹¹ Director Ryan Smith described the four divisions as “pieces of a larger idea.”¹² The department deliberately calls the people it serves “neighbors” rather than “clients” or “consumers,” and hires staff with lived experience in recovery or homelessness, which Smith calls “essential to building trust.”¹² Durham has been evaluated by both the National Bureau of Economic Research¹³ and Stanford-affiliated researchers, making it the CSD with the most published independent evaluations. The department has responded to more than 32,000 calls, freeing more than 10,000 officer hours.¹⁴ It received $2 million in additional funding for a 150% expansion: 17 new positions, citywide coverage, 12 hours daily, targeting 13,900 calls annually (10% of 911 volume).¹² Police Chief Patrice Andrews (retiring May 2026) acknowledged initial officer skepticism but reported that officers now request department teams on the radio.¹⁵ Matched only by Albuquerque in scope (The Assembly NC).¹²

Portland, Oregon. Portland’s crisis response department has operated since 2021 and was formally recognized as “an equal branch of the city’s public safety system” by a June 2025 City Council resolution.¹⁶ The resolution directed a hiring push toward 24/7 citywide coverage and instructed the Bureau of Human Resources to explore granting staff full designation as first responders with associated employment benefits.¹⁶ As of early 2026, the department operates 6 AM to midnight daily with 52 staff and a $10 million annual budget; 24/7 coverage remains a stated goal. Interim Program Manager April Roa, a former 911 dispatcher, described the gap she saw: “I was not always sending the right response to the right calls.”¹⁷ Officers told her they felt “ill-equipped” for mental health calls. Portland Police Bureau spokesperson confirmed the operational value: “We hear on the radio all the time officers asking for the department.”¹⁷ Mayor Keith Wilson granted the department new authorities allowing responders to “take someone to shelter or sobering beds.”¹⁷ A Portland State University evaluation found the program increased neighborhood trust in emergency services.¹⁸

Departments in Development

These cities have committed resources and announced plans but are earlier in the process.

Seattle, Washington. Mayor Bruce Harrell announced a $26.5 million investment to establish the Community Assisted Response and Engagement (CARE) Department, modeled after Albuquerque.¹⁹ The department includes three divisions: emergency call takers and dispatchers in the 911 Center, community-focused public safety responders (behavioral health professionals), and violence intervention specialists. Then-Police Chief Adrian Diaz (later removed from the role) called it a potential “model for the country.”¹⁹ Councilmember Andrew Lewis said the department would “deliver rapid civilian public health assistance to community members in crisis and frees up police to focus on preventing and solving crimes.”¹⁹ The CARE department has since responded to over 6,700 incidents and been made permanent, with the police contract removing limits on responder hiring.²⁰

Fayetteville, North Carolina. The Office of Community Safety launched in summer 2025 with a mission to “strengthen Fayetteville’s public safety ecosystem by addressing the gaps that traditional enforcement and emergency services alone cannot fill.”²¹ The office describes itself as “connective tissue between service providers, and city systems, ensuring that individuals and families in crisis don’t fall through the cracks.”²¹ Four core teams: Community Violence Prevention, Homelessness Response, Mental Health Response, and Youth Initiatives, with potential for additional teams. Fayetteville is notable as a mid-sized city in a politically moderate Southern state, expanding the geographic and political profile of the CSD model beyond its progressive urban origins.

Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Community Safety Department launched within the past year and has handled “hundreds” of 911 mental health calls “that would have traditionally been handled by law enforcement.” Coverage is Monday through Friday for mental health and substance use calls. The department provides both crisis response and ongoing case management including housing search, food insecurity assistance, eviction support, and connections to city services. Cambridge published an inaugural impact report. The program demonstrates the model can work at smaller city scale.²²

Related Models (Not Full CSDs)

Several cities operate multi-team alternative response programs that share structural features with CSDs but are housed inside existing departments rather than standing alone as co-equal branches.

Lexington, Kentucky. The Lexington Fire Department houses three specialized teams under community paramedicine: a Quick Response Team for post-overdose engagement, a Mobile Integrated Health team for chronic conditions, and a Crisis Response Team for mental health calls.²³ Lt. Alexander Jann described the approach: “We’re going to figure out what you need to solve the problem.”²³ Mayor Linda Gorton, a former registered nurse, said the program “improved patient outcomes, and reduced the burden on frontline emergency service providers.”²³ Lexington is structurally similar to a CSD in housing multiple specialized teams under one roof but remains a division within the fire department.

Denver, Colorado. Denver operates a mobile crisis program housed in the Department of Public Health and Environment, not as a standalone department. It has been independently evaluated by Stanford University²⁴ and has expanded from a single-district pilot to citywide coverage.²⁵ Denver achieved these outcomes without the CSD structure, though the program does not house violence intervention, homeless outreach, or clean teams under the same chain of command.

Harris County, Texas. Harris County’s crisis program operates through the county public health department and has handled more than 25,000 calls.²⁶ The program initially used a contracted nonprofit operator. In mid-2024, the county brought the program fully in-house after the contractor’s performance deteriorated. Service linkages increased 228% after the transition.²⁶ Harris County is a county-level model in a conservative state.

Newark, New Jersey. Mayor Ras Baraka created the city’s Office of Violence Prevention and Trauma Recovery in 2020.³⁰ In a 2024 interview, Baraka indicated that if elected Governor, he would take an “aggressive approach” to spread the model “across the state,” referencing the federal Office of Violence Prevention.³⁰

The Implementation Gap

The distance between where public support stands and where actual implementation stands is the central tension in the CSD landscape. National polling shows 82% of voters support creating a CSD in their community. But only roughly five cities have built one.²

The gap has identifiable causes. Building a new city department requires a city council vote, a budget appropriation, an HR classification structure, dispatch integration, a hiring pipeline, a physical headquarters, and political will sustained across election cycles. Each of these is a potential point of failure. The cities that have succeeded share common features: a mayor who championed the concept, a triggering event or political moment that created urgency, and a willingness to invest before outcomes data existed. Albuquerque had a federal consent decree with the DOJ (entered 2014, compliance achieved by 2023) that created political space for ACS.⁹ Durham had a city council that appropriated funding despite initial police skepticism. Portland had a multi-year pilot that built enough of a track record to justify formal department status. No city has built a CSD without sustained executive commitment.

The gap also reflects structural barriers specific to government types. County governments, which serve unincorporated areas and lack the same departmental structure as cities, have generally housed alternative response in public health rather than building standalone departments. Harris County is the largest documented example.²⁶ State governments have created enabling legislation (Washington codified community responder roles with liability protections) but have not created state-level CSDs. Ohio committed $51 million for statewide youth mobile crisis services.²⁷ Virginia invested $58 million in crisis stabilization infrastructure.²⁸ Montana funded statewide crisis expansion before withdrawing that support.¹ These state investments fund programs, not departments, and the distinction matters: programs housed in existing agencies can be defunded in a budget cycle without the political cost of eliminating a department.

The workforce pipeline is a distinct barrier. Half the U.S. lives in designated behavioral health workforce shortage areas. Twenty-six states report social worker shortages. A city that appropriates a CSD budget and builds dispatch integration still cannot launch if it cannot hire clinicians willing to do crisis field response work at the salaries government pay scales allow. Albuquerque’s training academy and CNM partnership represent one solution: train the workforce rather than recruit from a constrained market.⁶

Finding Your Comparable

A city considering a CSD will want to find a reference point that resembles its own context. The current landscape offers limited options:

Cities above 500,000 population with progressive political environments have the most reference points: Albuquerque, Portland, Seattle. Mid-sized cities (100,000-500,000) in moderate or mixed political environments can look to Durham, Fayetteville, and Cambridge. Cities in conservative states can look to Harris County (county-level, housed in public health) and Lexington (fire department-housed). Rural jurisdictions and small cities have no CSD reference point in the current landscape.

This concentration is a limitation. The documented CSDs operate in a narrow band of political and geographic contexts. Whether the model transfers to rural counties, conservative suburbs, or cities where police unions hold significant political power is an open question.

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The Bottom Line

Community Safety Departments exist in roughly five American cities, with several more in development. Albuquerque launched first (2021) and has fielded the most calls (120,000+).⁵ Durham has the most published independent evaluations.¹³ Portland’s June 2025 resolution formally recognized its department as co-equal with police and fire.¹⁶ Seattle committed $26.5 million.¹⁹ Fayetteville and Cambridge have launched at smaller scale.²¹ ²² National polling shows 82% support,² but fewer than a half-dozen cities have built departments. Related models housed in fire departments and public health agencies are more common. No rural or small-city CSD exists.

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Source Appendix

1. NPR / KFF Health News / Montana Public Radio, Aaron Bolton, “They help police with mental health calls. So why are ‘mobile crisis’ teams in crisis?” February 5, 2026. “At least 1,800 mobile teams nationwide.” Also covers Montana program closures. https://www.npr.org/2026/02/05/nx-s1-5693908/police-mental-health-calls-988-911-mobile-crisis-teams

2. Safer Cities, national survey of 2,400 registered voters. 82% support with operational description.

3. City of Albuquerque, “Albuquerque Community Safety” official department page. https://www.cabq.gov/acs. See also “What Is Community Safety?” services page: https://www.cabq.gov/acs/services

4. City of Albuquerque, “Albuquerque Community Safety Marks 100,000 Calls for Service Milestone,” March 2025. Esquibel as director; Ruiz-Angel promotion. https://www.cabq.gov/acs/news/albuquerque-community-safety-marks-100-000-calls-for-service-milestone

5. City of Albuquerque, “Albuquerque Community Safety Department Marks Four Years of Impact and Innovation,” September 2025. 120,000+ calls, 140 staff, 85% diverted, 24/7 since Sept 2023. https://www.cabq.gov/acs/news/albuquerque-community-safety-department-marks-four-years-of-impact-and-innovation

6. CNM, “CNM and City of Albuquerque Launch Annual ACS Academy to Train Alternative First Responders,” October 2025. https://www.cnm.edu/news/cnm-and-city-of-albuquerque-launch-annual-acs-academy-to-train-alternative-first-responders

7. KRQE News 13, “Albuquerque Community Safety Dept. headquarters is now open,” June 2024. 10,800 sq ft, Keller quote. https://www.krqe.com/news/albuquerque-metro/albuquerque-community-safety-department-headquarters-is-now-open/

8. Commander Luke Languit, remarks at ACS 100,000-call milestone press event, March 2025. https://www.cabq.gov/acs/news/albuquerque-community-safety-marks-100-000-calls-for-service-milestone

9. CSG Justice Center, “Albuquerque, NM — Expanding First Response Program Highlights,” April 2025. Medina quote. https://csgjusticecenter.org/publications/expanding-first-response/program-highlights/albuquerque-nm/

10. Murat Oztaskin, “Sending Help Instead of the Police in Albuquerque,” The New Yorker, February 4, 2023. 3% of calls, Keshawn Thomas incident, police budget comparison. https://www.newyorker.com/news/dispatch/sending-help-instead-of-the-police-in-albuquerque

11. CSG Justice Center, “Durham, NC — Expanding First Response Program Highlights,” updated December 2024. https://csgjusticecenter.org/publications/expanding-first-response/program-highlights/durham-nc/

12. Jeff Billman, “A New Model for Public Safety in Durham,” The Assembly NC, June 26, 2024. Smith quotes, expansion plans, staffing. https://www.theassemblync.com/politics/criminal-justice/durhams-new-model-for-public-safety/

13. Bocar A. Ba et al., NBER Working Paper No. 34344, October 2025. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w34344/w34344.pdf

14. City of Durham / ICMA, “City of Durham Wins ICMA 2025 Community Health & Safety Award.” 32,000+ calls, 10,000+ hours. https://icma.org/page/2025-community-health-safety-award-city-durham

15. Tradeoffs / The Marshall Project, “How Durham Got Police Onboard with Unarmed Crisis Response,” May 2, 2025. Andrews quotes. https://tradeoffs.org/2025/05/02/how-durham-north-carolina-got-police-onboard-with-unarmed-crisis-response/

16. Portland City Council Resolution No. 37709, adopted June 25, 2025. https://www.portland.gov/council/documents/resolution/adopted/37709

17. KGW8, “With city council support, could Portland Street Response finally staff up to 24/7 service?” June 2025. Roa quote, officer support. https://www.kgw.com/article/news/local/the-story/portland-street-response-247-city-council-resolution-public-safety/283-28f2ee44-4ccc-4e3e-a804-d1af4f669bb6. See also Portland.gov 5-year retrospective: https://www.portland.gov/streetresponse/news/2026/2/17/five-years-portland-street-response-has-become-pillar-public-safety

18. Portland State University HRAC, PSR Year Two Evaluation, July 2023. https://www.pdx.edu/homelessness/sites/homelessness.web.wdt.pdx.edu/files/2023-07/HRAC%20Portland%20Street%20Response%20Year%20Two%20Evaluation%20Report_FINAL%20FOR%20WEBSITE.pdf

19. Office of Mayor Bruce Harrell, “Mayor Harrell Announces Investments Supporting Upcoming Launch of CARE,” September 21, 2023. $26.5M, three divisions, Diaz and Lewis quotes. https://harrell.seattle.gov/2023/09/21/mayor-harrell-announces-investments-supporting-upcoming-launch-of-care-seattles-new-public-safety-department/

20. Office of Mayor Bruce Harrell, “Mayor Harrell Celebrates CARE Department Two-Year Anniversary and Permanent Responder Program,” October 23, 2025. 6,700+ incidents, permanent status, unlimited hiring under new police contract. https://harrell.seattle.gov/2025/10/23/mayor-harrell-celebrates-care-department-two-year-anniversary-and-permanent-responder-program/

21. Evey Weisblat, “Fayetteville’s Office of Community Safety gets to work,” CityView NC, June 27, 2025. https://www.cityviewnc.com/stories/fayettevilles-office-of-community-safety-gets-to-work/

22. City of Cambridge, “Community Safety Department Publishes Inaugural Impact Report,” April 24, 2025. 200 emergency calls, 94% without police, 1,600 needles removed. https://www.cambridgema.gov/Departments/communitysafety/News/2025/04/communitysafetydepartmentpublishesinauguralimpactreport

23. City of Lexington, “Mayor cuts ribbon to open Community Paramedicine office,” August 5, 2025. Lt. Alex Jann and Mayor Linda Gorton quotes. https://www.lexingtonky.gov/news/mayor-cuts-ribbon-open-community-paramedicine-office

24. Thomas S. Dee and Jaymes Pyne, Science Advances, June 2022. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9176742/

25. Urban Institute, Denver STAR interim evaluation, 2024. https://www.urban.org/research/publication/evaluating-alternative-crisis-response-denvers-support-team-assisted-response

26. FOX 26 Houston, “Harris County Mental Health Program faces uncertain future amid financial concerns,” May 23, 2024. HART under Harris County Public Health. https://www.fox26houston.com/news/harris-county-mental-health-program-faces-uncertain-future-amid-financial-concerns. 228% service linkage increase: Harris County Public Health program data (not independently verified).

27. Ohio Governor DeWine, MRSS statewide expansion, November 2025. $51M, 88 counties. https://childrenandyouth.ohio.gov/home/news-and-events/all-news/governor-dewine-announces-plan-for-statewide-expansion-for-youth-mobile-behvaioral-health-service

28. Governor Glenn Youngkin, “Right Help, Right Now” behavioral health plan. $58 million proposed December 2022 for crisis receiving centers and stabilization units; first-round grants awarded December 2023. Virginia Mercury, December 14, 2022: https://virginiamercury.com/2022/12/14/youngkin-proposes-230-million-behavioral-health-overhaul/. WSET, December 9, 2023 (grant awards confirmed): https://wset.com/news/local/governor-glenn-youngkin-invests-in-emergency-room-alternatives-for-behavioral-health-crises-crisis-stabilization-units-commonwealth-virginia-december-2023

29. Jennifer Peltz and Jesse Bedayn (with Lindsay Whitehurst), “Many big US cities now answer mental health crisis calls with civilian teams — not police,” The Associated Press, August 28, 2023. “At least 14 of the 20 most populous U.S. cities are hosting or starting such programs.” https://apnews.com/article/mental-health-crisis-911-police-alternative-civilian-responders-ca97971200c485e36aa456c04d217547

30. Route Fifty, “In a City Scarred by Violence, a New Approach to Public Safety,” June 2022. Newark OVPTR creation. https://www.route-fifty.com/management/2022/06/newark-new-jersey-public-safety-violence-prevention-mayor-ras-baraka/368160/. Baraka “aggressive approach” and gubernatorial intent: Safer Cities interview, Matt Ferner, September 9, 2024. https://safercitiesresearch.com/the-latest/three-takeaways-from-our-interview-with-mayor-baraka